Dreams – Making neural connections

by Mark Redmond

At completion of my training as a psychotherapist my dissertation was an exploration of recurring dreams and trauma (Redmond, 2012) and I have since found it useful when working with clients’ dreams in my psychotherapy practice. Three themes of interest emerged from the dissertation: firstly, dreaming has an integrative function that tempers disturbing emotional responses to new experiences. Dreams achieve this by connecting the new emotional concern to similar emotional experiences in the dreamer’s past, thereby making the new experience familiar and less disturbing. A second theme is the concept of boundary thickness and dreaming, and a third, the recurring dream continuum. What follows is an updated and abridged version of these dissertation themes.

Sleep is important (Killgore, 2010; Walker, 2009) and sleep debt can lead to health problems (Bayon et al., 2014; Spiegel et al., 1999; van Cauter et al., 2007). There is ongoing debate on the psychological function of dreaming (Domhoff, 2017; Hobson & Schredl, 2011); still, there are many dream function hypothesises in the literature, including: Freudian (1953 [1900]); Jungian (2002); Adaption to Stress (Koulack, 1993; Stewart & Koulack, 1993); Threat Simulation Theory (Revonsuo, 2000; 2015); Activation Input Neuro-modulation (AIM) Model (Hobson et al., 2000); Continuity Hypothesis (Schredl, 2003; Schredl & Hofmann, 2003); Protoconsciousness Theory (Hobson, 2009); Problem Solving (Barrett, 1993, 2007, 2017; Cartwright, 1974); Control Mastery Theory (Gazzillo et al., 2020) and Human Self- domestication (Blagrove & Lockheart, 2022).

The hypothesis of interest here is that dreams are a mental function that conceptualise unprocessed emotional experiences (Cartwright et al., 2006; Cartwright, 2010; Domhoff, 1993, 2000, 2011, 2017; Hartmann, 1996a, 1996b, 1999, 2001, 2010a, 2010b, 2013, 2014) – a function which Cartwright (2010) and Hartmann (2014) suggest goes on day and night. Cartwright’s (2010) 24-hour mind hypothesis states that when awake, processing is via normal conscious mental activity, moving to the processing of preconscious material with less motor activity during non-REM sleep, and then deeper for unconscious processing in REM sleep. A normal sleep night would include several such non-REM and REM cycle iterations striving for emotional homeostasis. Hartmann (2014) posits a “focused-waking- thought-to-dreaming continuum” (p. 31). Dreams make connections in neural networks more broadly than waking consciousness and are not random but guided by the dominant emotional concern of the individual. The dream’s “central image” (p. 11) contextualises this dominant emotion and provides an explanatory “picture metaphor” (p. 49). Metaphor is what occurs more naturally as one moves away from reductionist structured rapid processing mental activity of focused-waking-thought to the broader and more systemic realms of reverie and dreaming. Aside from night terrors, dreams are always “a creation, not a replay” (p. 23), and are “not a consolidation of memory. Rather, dreaming ‘weaves in’ and integrates new material into existing memory, guided by emotion” (p. 24). Cartwright (2010) beautifully captures these different modes of mental functioning metaphorically with her statement “we speak prose while awake and poetry in sleep” (p. 157).

Physical illnesses are also sources of emotional concern and dreams often portray these vividly with picture metaphor. The dreaming mind is more sensitive in this respect and “appear to pick up or notice small disturbances the waking mind has not noticed” (Hartmann, 2001, p. 52) – a view supported by Fiss (1993). Fiss’s (1993) Signal Detection Model posits that dreams in general are more responsive than the waking mind to “low-level stimuli” and “Poetzl phenomenon” (p. 407). Barrett (1993; 2007; 2017) and Cartwright (1974; 2010) suggest that the unconscious mind is in general a better problem solver than the conscious mind.

Boundary thickness and dreams
People are different physically, behaviourally, and mentally, and some people live their lives more ‘dreamily’ than others. Considering Hartmann’s (2014) focused- waking-thought-to-dreaming continuum there are some people who live their lives more in focused-waking- thought and others more at the day-dreaming/dreaming end of the continuum. Hartmann and Kunzendorf (2006) and Hartmann (2014) coined the term ‘thick and thin boundary’ to differentiate these personality types. Thick boundary types are very solid, well organised and have a sharp focus, able to concentrate on one thing while ignoring others. They are well defended, may seem rigid and are sometimes referred to as ‘thick-skinned’. At the other extreme, individuals are especially sensitive, open, or vulnerable. In their minds things are relatively fluid. They experience thoughts and feelings (often many different ones) at the same time. Such people have particularly thin boundaries. Most of us are in between or may have thick boundaries in some ways and thin in others. The Boundary Questionnaire (BQ) (Hartmann, 2001; 2013) examines the quantitative aspects of boundaries and though not a useful measure to assess personality, it does show that boundary thinness is highly correlated with the measure, “openness to experience” and “people who score thin on the boundary scale score unusually open on that measure” (Hartmann, 2001, p. 223). The BQ also indicates a significant correlation between thinness of boundaries and dream recall frequency. Certain definable groups who scored ‘thicker’ than average (naval officers, lawyers) tended to report very few dreams. Conversely those scoring ‘thinner’ (artists, musicians) report more dreams than average. Thin boundary individuals are generally life-long sufferers of nightmares that usually do not have a single acute traumatic source in childhood. Though they are empathic and creative in a positive sense, as children they were also oversensitive and vulnerable “Traumas that might have seemed minor to others had a great impact on those people” (Hartmann, 2001, p. 49).

Dream continua
Domhoff (1993; 2000) posits that there is a considerable amount of dream content that is repetitive for each individual and suggests a continuum for these dreams based on what he calls the “repetition principle” (Domhoff, 2000, p. 1), “To the degree that the experience is gradually assimilated, to that degree the dreams decrease in frequency and become altered in content” (p. 4). Hartmann (2001) and Terr (1990) also support the idea of a repetition continuum of the intensity of emotional concerns repeatedly contextualised in dreams. These diverse continua are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Dream Continua

1. Night terrors
These are not included on the Domhoff (2000) continuum, however Hartmann (1996b; 1999) and Terr (1990) differentiate them from traumatic dreams/nightmares. Night terrors usually occur (but not always) in slow wave sleep during early non-REM phases. They are not true nightmares; rather they are memory intrusions or flashbacks occurring in sleep which are usually an exact replica of the original traumatic experience (Hartmann, 1996b). In children, they are associated with “intense autonomic discharge, palpitations, sweating and a “glassy-eyed,” panic-stricken stare” (Stoddard et al., 1996, p. 32). Wilmer’s (1996) categories I and II war nightmares seem to fit at this end of the continuum as shown in Figure 1. It requires severe horrific events to trigger these dreams, and Hartmann (1996b) unexpectedly found that sufferers “did not have very thin boundaries found in those with life-long nightmares” (p. 112). These dreams fail to make connections in neural networks (Hartmann, 1996b); nevertheless, Wilmer (1996) calls his war nightmares “healing nightmares”, which would indicate connection-making capability. Pressmann et al. (1995) cite an interesting case of a patient with sleep apnoea causing night terrors; however one could pose the question: which is the cause and which is the effect?

2. Traumatic dreams / nightmares
These occur mainly in REM phases, and are a major symptom of PTSD which portray traumatic events in emotional detail and horror (Domhoff, 2000). However, Hartmann (1996b) argues that dreams on this level of the continuum are never an exact replica of the original traumatic experience since they generally contain an important metaphoric change to represent the original terror.

3. Recurrent dreams
These most often begin in childhood and adolescence with few reported to begin in adulthood. The affective tone is reported to be negative with regular themes of being attacked or chased. They are reported to begin at times of stress, but rarely does the content reflect the stressful situation directly i.e., images are more metaphoric. Not all subjects are able to link the onset of recurrent dreams to current stressful events which signals that the event is sometimes forgotten or repressed by thin boundary individuals, however Duval et al. (2013) warn not to immediately conclude that such dreams point to repressed childhood trauma.

4. Recurring themes
The symbols and metaphors that appear in these dreams are more variable and bizarre but when a long dream series is examined, clear recurring themes emerge. These repetitive themes are generally linked to more minor current emotional stressors or with residues of repressed childhood trauma.

5. Repeated dream elements
The dreams found at the lower end of the continuum are more random and the emotional pre- occupation very difficult to establish. However, Hall and Van De Castle’s Quantitative Content Analysis System (1966, as cited in Domhoff, 2000) shows that preoccupations can be uncovered by constructing carefully defined categories for settings, objects, emotions, character, activities, and social interactions, and then tabulating frequencies for each of these categories.

Studies and reviews
Brown and Donderi’s (1986) study (n=67) explored the links between recurrent dreamers and their self- reported well-being, and found that recurrent dreamers reported lower well-being scores than non- recurrent or past recurrent dreamers. Cartwright’s (1996) study of divorcing couples (n=70) found that those who, in the early days of the divorce, reported more dreams about their spouses coped better one year later, on various measures (e.g., depression), than those who did not have such dreams. An assessment by Zadra (1996) finds “support for the validity and the heuristic value of Domhoff’s (1993) repetition continuum” (p. 242). The cessation of a recurrent dream is associated with an elevation in self-reported levels of well-being and changes in dream patterns may be important indicators of how well people are adapting to their life circumstances (Zadra, 1996), thus highlighting the importance of examining series of dreams instead of focusing solely on individual dreams. A sample of Hartmann’s own dream research include studies before and after the 2001 New York twin tower terror attacks (Hartmann & Basile, 2003) (n=16) and (Hartmann & Brezler, 2008) (n=44). Hartmann and Brezler (2008) conclude that:

The power of the central imagery of the dream is related to the power of the underlying emotion or emotional state. And the study supports the idea that the dream image is an emotionally guided construction or creation, not a replay of waking experience.

(Hartmann & Brezler, 2008, p. 217)

Fox et al.’s (2013) review which compared functional neuroimaging and first-person content reports, found that “dreaming can be understood as an “intensified” version of waking mind-wandering” (p. 1). The waking-to- dream continuum is further supported by a review by Scarpelli et al. (2019) which concludes that “emotional regulation and dreaming share similar neurobiological bases suggesting that the amygdala, hippocampus and mPFC operate in a sort of continuum between wakefulness and REM sleep” (p. 9). Studies by Sterpendich et al. (2020) conclude that “emotions in dreams and wakefulness engage similar neural substrates and substantiate a link between emotional processes occurring during sleep and emotional brain functions during wakefulness” (p. 840). Margherita et al.’s, (2021) study (n=1095) during the Covid-19 lockdown in Italy supports the adaptive function of dreaming and their “results confirmed the function of dreams to work through traumatic experiences, whether the dreams are recalled or not” (p. 383).

Conclusion
Good sleep habits with or without dreams are essential for well-being. Dreams, when they occur, are functional whether they are remembered or not. Dreams contextualise unprocessed emotions, helping to weave in new experiences into existing memory, thereby building a meaningful emotional memory system at the core of the Self. Dreams use metaphor which is hyper-connective when making connections in neural networks since metaphor views boundaries between neural nodes more loosely. In contrast, focused-waking-thought uses serial logic and checks neural nodes more tightly when making connections; i.e., more precise matches are needed. The intensity of emotions contextualised in dreams can follow a continuum, thus highlighting the utility of examining dreams as a series rather than focusing on individual dreams in isolation. Change in emotional intensity in repetitive dreams can indicate change in well-being not obvious to the waking mind.

Mark Redmond MIAHIP, Dip. Counselling & Psychotherapy, MSc (Loss and Bereavement), BTech. Mark works in private practice in south Wexford and in cancer support. He likes working with dreams/nightmares and can be contacted at info@markredmond.ie.

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IAHIP 2023 - INSIDE OUT 100 - Summer 2023